Linguists

Spoken discourse structure – William Labov

 

Labov is a professor in the linguistics department of the University of Pennsylvania, and pursues research in sociolinguistics, language change, and dialectology. He is regarded as the founder of sociolinguistics.

When a speaker talks for an extended period of time, we can say they are narrating.

A sociolinguist William Labov developed a structure known as narrative categories. These are six categories which appear in a narrative.

The way a language is spoken (and written) differs across individuals as well as across situations encountered by the same individual. Labov argued that such differences are not only normal but also necessary to a language’s functioning. Labov’s research demonstrates that linguistic variation is pervasive and highly structured, revealing regular patterns of co-occurrence between language forms, such as the pronunciation of a particular vowel, and social categories, such as socioeconomic classes.

Labov has explored a wide range of linguistic phenomena within the variationist paradigm. He has examined semantic and grammatical features, though the study of phonological variation has predominated in his work. His research demonstrates that linguistic variation is pervasive (especially of an unwelcome influence or physical effect) spreading widely throughout an area or a group of people and highly structured, revealing regular patterns of co-occurrence between language forms, such as the pronunciation of a particular vowel, and social categories.

 

 

 

Semantics – Paul Grice

 The linguistic Paul Grice who determined that speakers adhere to four conversational maxims.

 

Grice is a British philosopher of language. His work on the nature of meaning has influenced the philosophical study of semantics.

Grice argued for an intention-based theory of meaning, and was the first to illustrate the distinction between what came to be called semantic and pragmatic meaning, that is, between what a speaker’s utterance (or its utterance ‘type’) means in the abstract, and what else a speaker can mean by uttering it in a particular context.

For example, the statement "Could you open the door?" is not a question about the hearer's ability, nor is it a factual statement in the indicative mood. It is actually an imperative like "Will you (please) open the door?".

Paul could ask Sue ‘’Where has the cream gone’’. Sue could then reply ‘’Cats drink cream’’. Though not said this means that the couple have a cat, cats drink cream and therefore the cat has probably drank the cream Paul is asking about.

 

 

Face Theory – Erving Goffman

 Erving Goffman developed a face theory in which an individual has both a positive and negative face needs.                                                                                                                               

 –Positive = feeling valued & appreciated

–Negative = the desire to feel independent & not to be imposed upon

 Goffman was a sociologist and writer considered to be ‘the most influential American sociologist of the twentieth century’. He is best known for his study of symbolic interaction which is supported by his book Presentation of Self in Everyday Life (1959).

He asked himself ‘why people behave the way they do?’ – instead of using scientific methods he used the act of simple observation to explain society. Goffman’s work allows us to have an understanding of society's ideas, values, and beliefs through the behaviour of the individual. It is through his findings that we can better understand situational behaviour.

Goffman stated that people could be seen as performers in a theatre. Actors in a play portray a certain image to the audience, and so people in society also put forth, in their behaviour, a certain image or impression to other people. For example, in church we may be quiet, respectful.

 

 

 

Semantics - Ferdinand de Saussure

 Ferdinand de Saussure was a Swiss linguist and semiotician whose ideas laid foundation for many significant developments in linguistics and semiology in the 20th century. Saussure came up with the semantic theory of the study of signals (how signs are interpreted).

Saussure said a sign is a unit used to represent and convey meaning. A sign is arbitrary (based on random choice or personal whim, rather than any reason or system) because "the bond between the signifier and the signified is arbitrary". This means the meanings that people attach to signs is subjective, people can apply different meanings to one sign. This link is also a matter of societal convention. Signs gain meanings from the associations we give them as a society.

For example, a red traffic lights doesn’t directly tell us to stop but we know to because of the meanings we associate with it as a society.

A crossing sign doesn’t literally tell us there is a crossing ahead however the image of the man allows us to know this and the red informs us to be alert.